General Notes

REFN: 12105AN
For the eldest son of Andronikos I Komnenos and father of Alexios I of Tre
bizond, see Manuel Komnenos (born 1145).
Manuel I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek: ?a????? ?' ??µ?????, Manouel I Komn
enos, November 28, 1118 – September 24, 1180) was a Byzantine Emperor of t
he 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the histo
ry of Byzantium and the Mediterranean. Eager to restore his empire to i
ts past glories as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, Manuel pursu
ed an energetic and ambitious foreign policy. In the process he made allia
nces with the Pope and the resurgent west, invaded Italy, successfully han
dled the passage of the dangerous Second Crusade through his empire, and e
stablished a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader kingdoms of Outreme
r. Facing Muslim advances in the Holy Land, he made common cause with t
he Kingdom of Jerusalem and participated in a combined invasion of Fatim
id Egypt. Manuel reshaped the political maps of the Balkans and the east M
editerranean, placing the kingdoms of Hungary and Outremer under Byzanti
ne hegemony and campaigning aggressively against his neighbours both in t
he west and in the east. However, towards the end of his reign Manuel's ac
hievements in the east were compromised by a serious defeat at Myriokephal
on, which in large part resulted from his arrogance in attacking a well-de
fended Seljuk position.
Called Megas (Greek: o ???a? translated as "the Great") by the Greeks, Man
uel is known to have inspired intense loyalty in those who served hi
m. He also appears as the hero of a history written by his secretary, Jo
hn Kinnamos, in which every virtue is attributed to him. Manuel, who was i
nfluenced by his contact with western Crusaders, enjoyed the reputati
on of "the most blessed emperor of Constantinople" in parts of the Latin w
orld as well.[1] Modern historians, however, have been less enthusiastic a
bout him. Some of them assert that the great power he wielded was not h
is own personal achievement, but that of the dynasty he represented; th
ey also argue Byzantine imperial power declined so rapidly after Manuel
's death that it is only natural to look for the causes of this decli
ne in his reign.[2]
Accession to the throne
Manuel Komnenos was the fourth son of John II Komnenos and Piroska of Hung
ary, so it seemed very unlikely that he would succeed his father.[3] His m
aternal grandfather was St. Ladislaus. Having distinguished himself in h
is father's war against the Seljuk Turks, in 1143 Manuel was chosen as h
is successor by John, in preference to his elder surviving brother Isaa
c. After John died on 8 April 1143, his son, Manuel, was acclaimed emper
or by the armies.[4] Yet his succession was by no means assured: At his fa
ther's deathbed in the wilds of Cilicia far from Constantinople, he recogn
ised that it was vital he should return to the capital as soon as possibl
e. He still had to take care of his father's funeral, and tradition demand
ed he organise the foundation of a monastery on the spot where his fath
er died. Swiftly, he dispatched his secretary John Axouch ahead of him, wi
th orders to arrest his most dangerous potential rival, his brother Isaa
c, who was living in the Great Palace with instant access to the imperi
al treasure and regalia. Axouch arrived in the capital even before ne
ws of the emperor's death had reached it. He quickly secured the loyal
ty of the city, and when Manuel entered the capital in August 1143, he w
as crowned by the new Patriarch, Michael Kourkouas. A few days later, wi
th nothing more to fear as his position as emperor was now secure, Manu
el ordered the release of Isaac.[5]
The empire that Manuel inherited from his father had undergone great chang
es since its foundation by Constantine, eight centuries before. The most o
bvious change had occurred in the seventh century: the soldiers of Islam h
ad taken Egypt, Palestine and much