• General Notes

  BIOGRAPHY: Shapur II, byname SHAPUR THE GREAT (b. AD 309--d. 379), 10th king of the Sasanian Empire of Persia, who withstood Roman strength by astute military strategy and diplomacy and brought the empire to the zenith of its power. Early life and accession.
  
  BIOGRAPHY: The name Shapur, meaning "son of a king," was common in the Sasanian period and was often given to sons other than princes. Numerical designations were not used to distinguish kings of the same name; instead, the family genealogy was cited. Thus, in one inscription, Shapur styles himself, "the Mazdah-worshipping god Shapur, king of kings of Iran and non-Iran, who is a scion of the Gods, the son of Hormizd (Ormizd II), the grandson of Narses." According to tradition, his father died before Shapur was born, and the child was proclaimed king by the Persian nobility at his birth in 309, in preference to his brothers. (At the death of Hormizd II, the Persian nobles killed the eldest son, blinded the second and imprisoned the third. The throne was reserved for the unborn child of one of the wives of Hormizd. This was Shapur, who was thus born king. [Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1961 ed., Vol. 20, p. 473, SHAPUR II]) After a regency, he apparently took the realm into his own hands in 325 at the age of 16. A contemporary account describes his appearance and courage in battle: "And he himself, mounted on his charger, and being taller than the rest, led his whole army, wearing instead of a crown a golden figure of a ram's head inlaid with jewels; being also splendid from the retinue of men of high rank and of different nations which followed him . . . He rode up to the gates [of Amida]; escorted by the cohort of his royal guard; and while pushing on more boldly, so that his very features might be plainly recognized, his ornaments made him such a mark for arrows and other missiles, that he would have been slain, if the dust had not hindered the sight of those who were shooting at him; so that after a part of his robe had been cut off by a blow of a javelin, he escaped to cause vast slaughter at a future time."
  BIOGRAPHY: In 337 Shapur sent his forces across the Tigris River, the uneasy frontier, to recover Armenia and Mesopotamia, which his predecessors had lost to the Romans. Until 350 conflict raged in northern Mesopotamia, with neither side a clear-cut victor. Shortly after 337, Shapur took an important policy decision. Although the state religion of the Sasanian Empire was Mazdaism (Zoroastrianism), Christianity flourished within its boundaries. The Roman emperor Constantine the Great had granted toleration to Christians in 313. With the subsequent Christianization of the empire, Shapur, mistrustful of a potential force of a fifth column at home while he was engaged abroad, ordered the persecution and forcible conversion of the Christians; this policy was in force throughout his reign.
  BIOGRAPHY: In 358 he was ready for a second encounter with Rome and sent an ambassador to the emperor Constantius II, bearing presents and a letter wrapped in white silk.
  
  BIOGRAPHY: This letter read, in part, "I, Sapor, king of kings, partner of the stars, brother of the sun and the moon, to Constantius Caesar my brother send much greeting . . . Because . . . the language of truth ought to be unrestrained and free, and because men in the highest rank ought only to say what they mean, I will reduce my propositions into a few words . . . Even your own ancient records bear witness that my ancestors possessed all the country up to the Strymon and the frontier of Macedonia. And these lands it is fitting that I who (not to speak arrogantly) am superior to those ancient kings in magnificence, and in all eminent virtues, should now reclaim. But I am at all times thoughtful to remember that, from my earliest youth, I have never done anything to repent of."
  BIOGRAPHY: When Constantius politely refused to hand over these lands, Shapur marched into northern Mesopotamia, this time with marked success. In 363, however, the emperor Julian led a huge army into Persia, creating havoc and advancing to the very gates of Ctesiphon on the Tigris, a major Sasanian city. Julian was mortally wounded in a skirmish, and his successor, Jovian, was compelled to accept an ignominious 30 years' truce and surrender of five Roman provinces. Conquest of Armenia.
  
  BIOGRAPHY: Shapur then turned his attention to Armenia. He defeated its pro-Roman ruler and attempted to force Zoroastrianism on the country. The Romans, however, regained their influence in Armenia, and a precarious balance between Romans and Persians existed from about 374. For five years, Armenia was weakened by internecine strife, and one of Shapur's last acts was to win it over by discreet gifts. Shapur's death in 379 left Persia with its territory considerably augmented: he had pacified the eastern frontier and gained control over Armenia; the Persian Empire had never been stronger. But war with Rome had become habitual and eventually undermined the strength of the Sasanians.
  
  BIOGRAPHY: As did the other great rulers of his line, Shapur considered himself an heir of the great Achaemenid Empire and strove to renew its glory. Indeed, his letter to Constantius contains a distant echo of the wording of the inscriptions of Darius I the Great, the Achaemenid ruler, when he writes of his devotion to truth and righteousness. Shapur was called a god, and he lived up to this exalted status, becoming irascible, even violent, when individuals summoned to his presence appeared to pay insufficient respect to his awesome majesty.
  
  BIOGRAPHY: The figure of Shapur survives. A large silver plate has a scene in relief that shows him hunting lions with bow and arrow, and countless silver coins portray his face in profile. At Bishapur in southwestern Iran, a tremendous rock-cut relief depicts him seated on a throne and witnessing a triumph of his army: in the top row he is flanked by nobles of the court, and the lower row contains soldiers who present captives and trophies of victory

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