General Notes

Nicholas II (1868-1918), last emperor (czar) of Russia (1894-1917); one of the
major European leaders of the pre-World War I era, he was deposed by the
Russian Revolution of 1917.
The eldest son of Emperor Alexander III, Nicholas was born at Tsarskoye Selo
(now Pushkin). Educated privately, he was married in 1894 to Alix of
Hesse-Darmstadt, a German princess who took the name Alexandra when she
converted to Russian Orthodoxy. In the same year his father died, and he
succeeded to the throne. Believing firmly in his duty to preserve absolute
power in the Russian monarchy, he opposed any concessions to those favoring
more democracy in government, but had little talent for leadership himself.
By 1905, the people of Russia had little faith in Nicholas's leadership. The
defeat of the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 had strained the
Russian economy and Russian workers. In January 1905 Saint Petersburg was
paralyzed by strikes. When workers and their families marched to Nicholas's
home, the Winter Palace, to present their grievances to the czar, soldiers
fired into the crowd, giving the day the name "Bloody Sunday." Throughout
Russia strikes, demonstrations, violence, and rioting took place. The czar's
authority over the country was gone. Nicholas placed Sergei Witte in control
of the government. Witte had been the former minister of finance and was
largely responsible for the program of industrialization that Russia had
followed since the 1890s. He knew that the czar would either have to quell the
revolts with total repression or lead the reform movement. Nicholas agreed to
reform Russia from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy with an
elected assembly, the Duma. However, Nicholas manipulated the Duma to reduce
its effectiveness, still believing that he was responsible only to God. In
1906 Prime Minister Peter Stolypin introduced a land reform that would have
allowed the peasants to own the land they farmed. However, the reform was
never fully implemented, and the agricultural system in Russia faced many
problems, including overpopulation in cities, resistance to change, and lack
of technology. Stolypin repressed any signs of discontent with terror and
executions.
Between the revolutions of 1905 and 1917, the royal family began to rely on
the advice of a mystic named Rasputin. Rasputin had gained influence in the
royal court because he was able to help Alexis, the heir to the throne, who
suffered from hemophilia. Alexandra was so impressed by his abilities, she
kept him at court, and he became the most influential person in her entourage.
Because Nicholas was devoted to his wife and relied on her advice, he also was
influenced by Rasputin. By 1911 Rasputin had appointed many of the high
government officials, and most of his appointees were incapable. He was
notorious throughout the country for his bizarre and flamboyant lifestyle. The
royal family's close connection with Rasputin further alienated the monarchy
from the Russian people.
An advocate of international cooperation, Nicholas supported the Hague
Conferences in 1899 and 1907, which created the Permanent Court of Arbitration
and formulated rules for the humane conduct of war, but failed to check
Europe's growing arms race. Despite his personally friendly relations with his
cousin, William II of Germany, their two countries were on opposite sides when
World War I broke out in 1914.
Russia was unprepared for the war; there were shortages of ammunition and of
officers to command the soldiers, as well as problems transporting food
throughout Russia. After 1915, when Nicholas assumed personal command of the
army, military failures were blamed on him, further damaging his reputation.
In addition, while he was away from the royal court, his wife and Rasputin
were in charge of internal affairs, which angered the people. Nicholas was
forced to abdicate the throne after the Russian Revolution of March 1917, and
Russia became a democratic republic. Nicholas and his family were held captive
by the Bolsheviks until July 16, 1918, when they all were executed.